Theoretical Foundations of Motivation

• Needs and motives: Physiological and Psychological
• Behavioral Perspectives

Natural tendency to seek optimal level of arousal: Yerkes-Dodson Law

Motivation and reinforcers
Lloyd on reinforcing cats, dogs, chickens, and cows; gambling behavior

• Social Motives (David McClelland)

Need for Achievement (nAch)

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Need for Power (nPower)

Application: Selecting groups for cooperative learning activities

• Humanistic Theory

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological->Safety->Love & Belongingness->Esteem->Self-actualization

Carol Gilligan's research questions the relevance of Maslow's model to women

• Attribution Theory (Bernard Weiner)

3 characteristics: internal <-> external; stable <-> unstable; controllable <-> uncontrollable

4 explanations: ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck

The phenomenon of Learned Helplessness

• Expectancy-Value Theories

Jacqueline Eccles' Model of Achievement and Activity Choose: Intrinsic value, Utility value, Cost, Attainment value

• Incentives for Learning

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Incentives

Overjustification Hypothesis (Mark Lepper): Take care not to turn play into work

Reconciling extrinsic and intrinsic motivation: Principle of Self-Determination

• Flow Theory

"...the state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it." Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 4

Flow Model

Flow characteristics:

• Challenge is optimized
• Activity completely absorbs attention
• The activity has clear goals
• Activity provides clear feedback
• Individual is 'freed' from other worries
• A feeling of complete control
• Feelings of self-consciousness disappear
• Time is transformed

Play Theory